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Endeavours to reconstruct the Lower Palaeolithic prehistory of the Arabian Peninsula have been thwarted by the absence of archaeological excavations of stratified sedimentary sequences. Surface scatter mixtures of lithic artifacts, which range in age from the Lower Palaeolithic to the Neolithic, dominate the archaeological record. Although there have been reports of Oldowan type 1 stone tools [e.g. the Shuwayhitiyah collection] in Arabia, none of these occurrences have been substantiated. Future research endeavours may provide more definitive evidence. Acheulean lithic assemblages have been excavated at Dawadmi and Wadi Fatimah in central and western Saudi Arabia. These sites are proximal to the sources of raw materials and aquatic environments. Indications of early stage reduction at Dawadmi and typological comparisons seem to suggest a tenuous middle Acheulean age for these stone tools [H Groucutt, 2012].
The variable topography of Arabia has been subjected temporally to complex and dynamic environmental changes. There was abundant rainfall ca130-120, 105-100 and 82-78 Ka, which facilitated human migrations within the interior of Arabia, where climatic conditions could be highly unstable during periods of intense aridity [e.g. the MIS 4 and MIS 2 glacial eras]. Wadi al Batin once drained a large area of northern Saudi Arabia and created a huge alluvial fan around Kuwait. The Mudawwra [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] Palaeolake on the border of Saudi Arabia and Jordan extended over an area of about 2000 square km during an interglacial era. There were brief episodes of higher precipitation during MIS 6, which contrasts with the other colder, dryer MIS 4 And MIS 2 ice ages [ibid]. There is a paucity of climatic data from ca74-10.5 Ka. Hyper-arid conditions are deemed to have prevailed from ca74-60 Ka. The nomadic residents of Arabia probably moved to southern refugia [e.g. Jebel Faya and Wadi Surdud], when the interior deserts were most extensive and reoccupied old lands, when heavy rainfall transformed the landscape [A Parton, 2013].
Fabrication of Middle Palaeolithic stone tools commenced during MIS5e [ca128-120 Ka], when humid, warm conditions transformed the interior landscape of Arabia, North Africa and the Levant. Excavations at the Jebel Faya 1 rock shelter in the United Emirates of eastern Arabia retrieved lithic articles from basal cultural horizon C, which have been provisionally dated to ca125 Ka. The inventory is comprised of small axes, thick bifacial foliates, hammer blades and centripetal cores, which are characterized by platform faceting, with a number of Levallois components. This assemblage is deemed to have some affinities with a broadly coeval lithic industry in East Africa [J Rose, 2010 and S Armitage,2011]. C Stringer [2011] contends that the Jebel Faya horizon C stone implements do not resemble those at the Skhul and Qafesh caves in the Levant, which were occupied by Homo sapiens ca125/120-90/80 Ka ago.
The Asfet Middle Stone Age surface scatters on the southern edge of the Gulf of Zulu, on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea features prepared core blade technologies, production of points, small blades and various retouched tools. Analyses of 137 cores identified the two main exploitation strategies as the Levallois and blade core, including one late Nubian-type core. A number of tools [e.g. points and scrapers] were modified by secondary retouch. Others [e.g. bifaces and hand axes] were systematically reduced from selected nodules. Triangular points appear to have been manufactured by continuous, non-invasive, peripheral retouch around the medial distal part. Only foliates exhibit invasive touch. Most debitage infers end-struck reduction. Flakes were removed parallel to the long axis of cores. This implies a reduction strategy to maximize the cutting edge of the blanks [A Beyin, 2013].
There has been considerable variation in core, tool and debitage classes, with appreciable differences in tool sizes. No microliths were recovered. The Asfet inventories have been provisionally dated to ca190-60 Ka [ibid]. The overall lithic techno-complex has some similarities to the Aduma site [ca90 Ka; Yellan,2005], Egyptian/African, Nubian, Dhofar late Nubian and Jebal Faya, Arabia assemblages, where bifacial point technology has been reported at the latter locale [A Beyin, 2013].
African Nubian stone tool industries range from the early Nubian [ca130-155 Ka] to late Nubian [ca85-74 Ka]. Early Nubian inventories have a prevalence of Nubian Levallois cores, with bilateral type 2 preparation in conjunction with Lupemban bifacial foliates. Late Nubian cores, with distal divergent preparation, dominate the younger assemblages, which have no or minimal bifacial tools. At Sodmein cave and the Taramsa 1 site early and late Nubian assemblages are separated by a hiatus extending from MIS 5b to MIS 5d [ca115-85 Ka: V Usik, 2012].Although no Nubian sites in North Africa date to that time span, the Nubian Aybut al Auwal site in Dhofar, south Oman has been tentatively dated to ca106+/-9.0 Ka [J Rose,2011].

The sedimentology of the stratigraphic sequence at relict, Lake Swain, midway between the Dhofar region and the Oman Mountains of SW Arabia, revealed a change from fluvial to shallow lacustrine deposition with oscillating water tables. It covered about 1400 square km with a maximum depth of 25m. Chert artifacts were recovered next to the shoreline. Nine of twelve OSL age estimates range from ca120-108 Ka and aeolian sand was deposited ca115-110 Ka [T Rosenburg, 2011].The typology of the chert inventory does not have strong affinities to those in the Levant or North Africa. The high density of lithics infers an appreciable duration of occupation or a relatively large nomadic group [ibid]. Hunter-gatherers probably camped by the lake during MIS5e or possibly later during [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] MIS5c.Homo sapiens [?] appear to have frequented a number of Arabian locales during MIS5. Neanderthals probably migrated north during this warm wet era. No Pleistocene hominid fossils have been found in Arabia. There is not adequate archaeological data to establish the routes that these individuals followed to reach Arabia from Africa [?]. Denisovans "may" have already been in Eurasia [conjectural].
Nubian type cores have been retrieved from Wadi Aybut in central Dhofar, SW Oman. There are Aybut al Auwal Nubian-type artefact surface scatters in addition to those within the Aybut fluvial sediments. The OSL age estimates for the Nubian-type lithics in Aybut fluvial unit 3 averages ca106+/-9.0 Ka. The assemblage included the proximal medial fragment of a Levallois point with a chapeau de gendarme striking platform and covering lateral edges. The surface collection largely exhibits Nubian-Levallois technology, including late Nubian-Levallois cores; blades and points: many Levallois type flakes and about 20% tools. There were no bifacial foliates. Overall these lithics bear resemblances to the NE African late Nubian assemblages [J Rose, 2011]. The presence of Homo sapiens [?] at four or more locales in the Levant and Arabia during the MIS5 interglacial period indicates that the contact between Africa and Asia was more frequent than was originally surmised.
The Nefud desert floor of northern Arabia has a network of relict rivers and palaeo-lakes [e.g.Juddah]. During the peak pluvials [e.g. MIS5e , ca122 Ka] lakes in the Jubbah and Katefah basins might have extended to over 78 square km. There were ample natural resources along the lacustrine margins to attract nomadic, Middle Palaeolithic foragers, who could have accessed the region from the Sinai or the Levant. A palaeobotanical study at the Jebel Qattar 1 site indicated a grassland landscape with clumps of trees. Surface finds and excavated MIS5a artifacts at the site included 95 pieces of debitage, 9 cores and 10 retouched tools, which had a Levallois-type component. Extensive post-depositional disturbance of the Middle Palaeolithic cultural material at the Jebel Katefeh 1 and Jebel Umn Sanman 1 sites precluded the acquisition of OSL age determinations [M Petragalia, 2012].
Discriminant functions analyses were conducted on 55 Jebel Qattar 1 and Jebel Katefeh 1 cores to identify any similarities to cores at other relevant Middle Palaeolithic locales. The two Jubbah core collections clustered with the Tuban layer C cores in the Levant, which "might" have been manufactured by Neanderthals or "possibly" by Neanderthal/Homo sapiens hybrids [highly conjectural]. The Jubbah cores did not cluster with cores at the Skhul cave in Israel, which were fabricated by Homo sapiens or with those above and below the Toba volcanic ash [ca72+/-2.0Ka] at the Jwalapurra River site in southern India [ibid].
Various reduction methods were applied to the Jubbah lithic assemblages, such as centripetal, bidirectional, unidirectional and convergent. The Jebel Qattar 1 and Jebej Umn Sanmon 1 inventories were mainly centripetal with centripetal preparation of preferential Levallois-type cores at the latter encampment. At Jebel Katefeh 1 quartz was usually reduced by simple flaking with a number of artifacts exhibiting Levallois-type features. These lithics share a number of characteristics with some Levant stone tool kits [ibid].Collation of the above data appears to imply that nomadic hunter-gatherers from the Levant could have visited the lacustrine shorelines at Jubbah as temperatures began to decline shortly before the cold, dry MIS4 period ca74-60 Ka.
Nubian sites have largely been found in the interior of the Nejd plateau and southern margins of the Rub'Al Khali. "Nubian" encampments are usually on desert gravel by dry water courses, ground water springs and high quality chert outcrops, with the main concentration near Mudayy village. Analyses of five scatters did not identify any early Nubian bifacial tools. The low density of retouched implements at Dhofar contrasts with north Sudan inventories, but is compatible with the late Nubian/Egyptian stone tools. Among the non-Levallois products uni- and bi-directional cores are the most common. Site TH.268 had a 17.5% frequency of bidirectional cores, 4-8cm long [V Usik, 2012]. They are common throughout the study area and can be Nubian like, abeit with non-traditional shapes and/or lacking the steep median distal ridge. At site TH.268 they have largely replaced "classic" Nubian technology. This could represent a shift from preferential to continuous reduction systems. There are at least 30 lithic surface scatters similar to TH.268. They have been designated as the Mudayyan stone tool industry and they are primarily within a 20km radius of Mudayy springs. This might reflect changing settlement patterns as aridity gained momentum. This industry seems to be an adaptation of the earlier "classic" Dhofar- Nubian [ibid].
The Middle Palaeolithic Jebel Barakah and four nearby [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] sites are in the western Abu Dhabi Emirate overlooking the sea between Jebel Dhanna and the Qatar Peninsula. The five stone tool kits are dominated by similar radial cores and flakes. They were manufactured from good quality flint or chert. Core reduction was mainly the Levallois prepared core method of radial flaking. One core had a flat, ventral surface. A [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] second technique may have been bipolar and a third late Nubian-Levallois [tenuous]. Most primary flakes lack deliberate retouch. These knappers do not appear to have been familiar with the blade core reduction method. Later [?] Middle Palaeolithic stone tool industries on the Arabian Peninsula were characterized by blade and blade core strategies [G Wahida,2010].Additional information is required before the Jebel Barak sites can be fully integrated into the reconstruction of the Arabian Peninsula prehistory.
The Wadi Surdud site complex is in the western Arabian al Mahwit/Tihama region of Yemen directly facing East Africa. The Al-Sharj 1 and Shi'bat Dihja 1 and2 sites date to ca60-50 Ka ago, with basal lithic scatters that might be ca85? Ka old. These sites were in a transitional zone between the highlands and the lowlands, with access to the natural resources of the two contrasting environments. The Shi'bat Dihja 1 site's more than 30,000 lithic artifacts were mainly fabricated from rhyolite angular pebbles. The prevalent production of pointed, elongated flakes utilized a hard hammer percussion technique from minimally prepared, convergent, unidirectional and blade cores. Pointed items did not have projectile impact fractures and there were no indications that these stone tools functioned as cutting implements. The ratio of retouched pieces was 0.5%. Nine small worked pebbles , with long, sinuous, blunt edges were formed by a series of invasive removals. A composition preceding from a complete reduction sequence was performed on site during a phase of occupation, which was devoted to multi-purpose activities [A Delagnes, 2013].
Although the Shi'bat Dihya 2 site shares some of the above features, the flaking processes are appreciably different, resulting in a prevalence of unprepared, discoidal-like cores and quadrangular, short flakes, with frequent cortical platforms and distal edges. The Middle Palaeolithic traditions of these two sites do not appear to have strong affinities with coeval lithic traditions. Levallois debitage was secondary, expedient retouched implements were minimal and the tool kits were relatively rudimentary by contemporary standards [ibid]. These features are compatible with isolation of hunter-gatherers in a Yemen refugium during the MIS4 glacial era and the relative absence of new external technical innovations during the early MIS3 period. Knappers "may" have adapted lithic technologies locally and some skills could have been lost during the [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] period of glacial isolation. The momentum towards progress seems to have stagnated to a degree. To date, standardized lithic artifacts, composite hafting systems, bone implements, personal ornaments and symbolic items have not been a significant component of Arabian Middle Palaeolithic cultural assemblages [A Delagnes, 2013]. Since these became important cultural features in some regions of Europe and Australia post 45Ka, the second, principle wave of Homo sapiens to leave Africa may not initially have made an appreciable contribution to the permanent population of the Arabian Peninsula [speculation].
The available archaeological data [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] suggests, that after MIS5 a number of local Arabian lithic traditions might have developed along separate trajectories with no or minimal external influences [A Parton, 2013]. Geological mapping by Farrant et al [2012] has identified fluvial/lacustrine deposits near Remah, Abu Dhabi, which have OSL dated to ca54.1+/-3.1 and 53.4+/-3.6 Ka. Monsoonal rain might have penetrated some interior regions of Arabia ca55-42 Ka ago. However the archaeological record is sparse for this period. The Jebel Faya lithic assemblage in horizon A was manufactured during MIS3. V Usik [2013] reported 78 Mudayyan stone industry surface finds in the Dhofar Area, with core reduction strategies that appear to have some similarities to those in the southern Levant during MIS3.
The A Parton [2013] study area is about 35km south of Al Dhaid in Sharjah and is dominated by the Al Faya anticline. The palaeo-environment record at Aqabah indicates five distinct episodes of overbank flooding and lake formation ca 61-58 Ka [OSL age estimates]. After lacustrine phase one, an influx of aeolian sand coincides with an arid period. An increase in inorganic elements indicated, that the last three inundation episodes were more intense and that the lake waters were probably recharged by rainfall. Ca61-58 Ka monsoonal incursions into SE Arabia appear to have activated fluvial drainage systems along the western flanks of the Haja Mountains. These were sufficiently sustained to form widespread terraces. The humidity increase at Aqabah is compatible with other records [e.g. marine cores], which indicate a strengthening and latitude shift of the Indian Ocean monsoon ca58 Ka [ibid].
OSL age determinations for central Saudi Arabia infer an increase in rainfall ca53.9+/-4.2 and ca54.0+/-5.4Ka.Correlation with the Aqabah chronology could be tenuous until additional regional information becomes available. The Jebel Faya site is only 9.5km from Lake Aqabah, which would have provided water for feral fauna and hunter-gatherers. Although these humid phases were probably relatively brief, they allowed the local people to expand the scope of their activities [ibid]. Middle Palaeolithic sites in Arabia were generally associated with raw material sources, aquatic systems and strategic positions on the landscape. Some far northern Arabian MIS3 sites may represent brief incursions by nomads from the Levant during humid episodes [e.g. the stone tool assemblage at the Faw Well site; H Groucutt, 2012]. Whether they became permanent residents is equivocal.
Archaeological investigations on the southern Najd plateau of SW Oman in the Dhofar territories located three sites with stratified sedimentary sections containing cultural material, that can broadly be classified as Nejd Leptolithic. OSL age determinations range from 14-7Ka. These lithic assemblages differ from roughly contemporary industries [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] in East Africa and the Levant. The Nejd Leptolithic surface scatters on the Najd plateau were initially identified by the use of recurrent blade reduction strategies [J Rose, 2006]. About 500km to the NE numerous large, high density blade scatters were observed throughout the Hawshi/Huqf depressions of central Oman [Jagher, 2010]. Crassard [2008] reported similarities with blade inventories in central and eastern Yemen.
The Nejd Leptolithic tradition is defined by the blade technology faconnage reduction technique and a distinct tool kit. This reduction strategy is often associated with the faconnage manufacture of soft hammer foliates, oviates, and lanceolates; heavy duty bifaces; and various trifocally worked implements. Struck tools, including burins, diverse scraper types , partially retouched tools and Fasad points, were transformed into an array of unifacial implements [Ref; the collapsed al Hatab rockshelter]. Analysis of the in situ sites al Hatab, Ghazal, Khumseen and two large stone artifacts surface scatters at Wadi Hatup 1 and Jeba Eva indicated that the Nejd Leptolithic tradition could be divided into an early and a late stage [Y Hilbert, 2012].
The early phase is present in the lower al Hatab unit and at the Wadi Hatuf surface scatter, which is about 15km distant. The late phase was encountered in the upper al Hatab level, Ghazel layer 2 and Khumseen horizon 5,which all date to ca10-7Ka. The five assemblages were dominated by the production of blade-proportion debitage. There was an additional reduction modality in the late stage [e.g. at the Jebel Eva surface scatter], which is distinguished by its deliberately short cycle of reduction [ibid]. A similar reduction strategy was reported by Crossard [2008] at Hadramawt in [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] central Yemen [the Wa shah metod]. However the Wa shah points differ from the Dhofar tanged Fasad points. Bifacial fabrication is less prominent in the late Nejd Leptolithic inventories [J Hilbert, 2013]. Based on the above and the mtDNA haplogroup [hg] ROa distribution there seems to have been a degree of population continuity in southern Arabia across the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary. The Arabian Holocene stone artifacts do not provide any [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] diagnostic evidence of interaction with East Africa [H Groucult, 2012].
After the ca10.6Ka onset of the last major humid period in Arabia, there was a proliferation of human settlements trough out the peninsula ca10-8Ka. During the MSI2 glacial era, when extensive deserts largely isolated the southern population from the northern hunter-gatherers, there might have been demographic exchange between coastal southern Arabia and Ethiopia [J Rose, 2012]. V Usik [2012] proposed that the "classic" Mudayyan lithic industry could represent a technological stage of development subsequent to and possibly derived from the "classic" Dhofar Nubian industry. After ca8Ka the Nejd Leptolithic stone tool kits began to disappear across southern Arabia. The Manayzah rock shelter [ca8Ka] at Yemen contained domestic sheep, goats and cattle bones. The stone tool inventory does not indicate a relationship with the Levant PPNB assemblages [McCorriston, 2009]. The source of the domestic fauna at Manayzah has not been established.
When the number of inland Arabian archaeological sites dramatically increased, a more specialized tool kit evolved. Hafted projectile points were produced via a single platform blade technology. These Fasad points were fabricated on simple flakes and blades with a distinct tang at the bottom of the hafting. They bear a resemblance to the Byblos points in the Levant [A Al-Abri, 2012]. J Rose [2009] contends that the Fasad points predate Byblos points and that the former were an autochthonous development in southern Arabia.
Although the current genetic research implies that there were a number of human migrations from the Near East to Arabia ca13-12Ka in conjunction with population growth, there is no diagnostic evidence to support this movement of people. Lithic artifacts ca13-8Ka from sites in the Yemen highlands, Dhofar and the United Arab Emirates do not have strong affinities to those in the Levant [A Al-Abri, 2012]. During the [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] MIS2 glacial period extensive expanses of arid desert separated the Levant from people in southern Arabian refugia. Subsequently there were appreciable post glacial population redistributions [D Badro, 2013]. Recent genetic studies have identified numerous anomalous events, but there is not sufficient regional information to definitively reconstruct the origins, directions and extent of these dispersals, or their contributions to the present Arabian gene pool.
The coalescence age estimates for mtDNA hg ROa variants infers that ROa lineages were concentrated in the southern Arabian refugia [e.g. Yemen] during the last glacial maximum. MtDNA hg R2 has a high interval [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] diversity and is concentrated in southern Arabia [e.g. Yemen and South Oman].It appears to have evolved locally in Dhofar and Al Mahra ca13Ka. MtDNA hg HV1 diversified in Yemen ca15Ka. The lactose persistence allele-13915*G has a high presence in Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Dhofar. Frequencies are much lower in the Near East, Iran and Pakistan. Its epicentre is in Dhofar [J Rose, 2013]. MtDNA hgs RO, HV1 and R2 comprise [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] about 25% of the southern Arabian genetic pool. As climatic conditions improved ca15-13Ka people from the glacial refugia in southern Arabia began to expand northward. This movement gained momentum until there was a period of stagnation ca8Ka [A Al-Abri, 2012]. Since these three mtDNA hgs have also been reported in the Near East during the last glacial era, it is difficult to establish genetically to what extent people migrated from the Levant to Arabia post 15Ka.
The existing genetic information suggests that hg ROa was probably introduced to Arabia from the Middle East, where the oldest lineages of the R clade have been detected. However several ROa founders have been identified in southern Arabia with coalescence estimates inferring population continuity from the terminal Pleistocene to the Holocene. A number of these lineages [ROa3 [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] and ROa1a] appear to have spread to north and east Africa during the post glacial humid episodes. The coalescence age estimates for hg ROa from all positions is ca22.6+/-o.85Ka [V Cerny, 2011]. Whole genome analysisof HV1 clades have detected close genetic relations between the populations on both coasts of the Red Sea during the Holocene [ Musilava, 2011].
MtDNA hg N1c has an appreciable presence in Arabia. It is one of the oldest genetic lineages on the peninsula. There are several deep rooted Ethiopian, Somali and Yemeni lineages with hg N1a, which may reflect ancient gene flow between the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa. V Fernandes [2012] speculated that macro-hg N1 [ca63-50Ka] might have evolved in Arabia and [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] that there was one or possibly more back migrations to Africa [ibid]. MtDNA Hg J is over represented in Saudi Arabia [D Badro, 2013].There are traces of the East African mtDNA hg L4 [ coalescence time estimate ca95Ka] in southern Arabia, but there are not sufficient L4 haplotypes to make any conclusive phylogeographic conclusions [J Rose, 2011].There have been numerous recent genetic studies that relate to the Arabian Peninsula, but there is still not adequate information to reconstruct population movements and the origins of newcomers with a reasonable degree of credence.
The Arabian Peninsula was the principle conduit through which early Homo sapiens from NE Africa could access the subcontinent, SE Asia and Australia. Hominids could travel through the interior of the peninsula during the more humid periods between glacial eras. When cold, dry glacial conditions prevailed, extensive expanses of arid deserts separated North and south Arabia and the people in [link widoczny dla zalogowanych] the central regions migrated to southern refugia. Recent archaeological investigations have revealed that Homo sapiens from NE Africa reached Arabia during the warm, humid MIS5e era [ca128-120Ka]. Whether their descendants proceeded to the Jwalapurra River site in southern India, where similar lithic artifacts have been recovered from above and below a layer of Toba volcanic ash dating toca72+/-2Ka, is a moot point. The combined individual components of mtDNA macro-hg M have an estimated age of ca73+/-7.4ka.Macro-hg M lineages dominate the gene pool of India [A Merriwether, 2005].
When more humid conditions prevailed in central Arabia after the glacial periods, people expanded northward from the southern refugia. Their movements are better documented than those of the broadly coeval population dispersals southward from the Levant and Sinai. The degree to which the inhabitants of the Near East, including the Early Homo sapiens from the Qafzeh and Skhul caves in Israel [ca120-90?Ka] contributed to the extant Arabian gene pool is conjectural. Future genetic studies and archaeological investigations could resolve some of the existing enigmas,
(c)
Palaeolithic to Early Holocene ArabiaArticle Summary: There is credible archaeological evidence,that early Homo sapiens from NE Africa reached the Arabian Peninsula ca128-120Ka ago.Subsequent people movements are not as well defined.
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